<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<chapter id="protlist">
    <title>List of Protocols</title>

    <para>
        This section is work in progress; we strive to update the documentation as we make changes to the code.
    </para>
    <para>
        The most important properties are described on the
        <ulink url="http://www.jboss.org/wiki/Wiki.jsp?page=JGroups">wiki</ulink>. The idea is that users take one
        of the predefined configurations (shipped with JGroups) and make only minor changes to it.
    </para>

    <para>For each protocol define:</para>

    <itemizedlist>
        <listitem>
            <para>Properties provided</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
            <para>Required services</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
            <para>Provided services</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
            <para>Behavior</para>
        </listitem>
    </itemizedlist>

    <section>
        <title>Transport</title>

        <section>
            <title>UDP</title>
            
			${UDP}			          

            <para></para>
        </section>

        <section>
            <title>TCP</title>

			${TCP}
			
            <para></para>
        </section>        

        <section>
            <title>TUNNEL</title>
            
			${TUNNEL}
            

            <para></para>
        </section>       
    </section>

    <section>
        <title>Initial membership discovery</title>

        <section>
            <title>PING</title>
            
			${PING}
            <para></para>
        </section>

        <section>
            <title>TCPPING</title>
            
			${TCPPING}

            <para></para>
        </section>

        <section>
            <title>TCPGOSSIP</title>
            
			${TCPGOSSIP}

            <para></para>
        </section>

        <section>
            <title>MPING</title>

			${MPING}
            <para></para>
        </section>
    </section>

    <section>
        <title>Merging after a network partition</title>

        <section>
            <title>MERGE2</title>
				${MERGE2}

            <para></para>
        </section>
    </section>

    <section>


        <title>Failure Detection</title>

        The task of failure detection is to probe members of a group and see whether they are alive. When a member is
        suspected (= deemed dead), then a SUSPECT message is sent to all nodes of the cluster. It is not the task of the
        failure detection layer to exclude a crashed member (this is done by the group membership protocol, GMS), but
        simply to notify everyone that a node in the cluster is suspected of having crashed.

        <section>
            <title>FD</title>

            <para>Failure detection based on heartbeat messages. If reply is not
                received without timeout ms, max_tries times, a member is declared
                suspected, and will be excluded by GMS
            </para>

            <para>Each member send a message containing a "FD" - HEARTBEAT header to
                its neighbor to the right (identified by the ping_dest address). The
                heartbeats are sent by the inner class Monitor. When the neighbor
                receives the HEARTBEAT, it replies with a message containing a "FD" -
                HEARTBEAT_ACK header. The first member watches for "FD" - HEARTBEAT_ACK
                replies from its neigbor. For each received reply, it resets the
                last_ack timestamp (sets it to current time) and num_tries counter (sets
                it to 0). The same Monitor instance that sends heartbeats whatches the
                difference between current time and last_ack. If this difference grows
                over timeout, the Monitor cycles several more times (until max_tries) is
                reached) and then sends a SUSPECT message for the neighbor's address.
                The SUSPECT message is sent down the stack, is addressed to all members,
                and is as a regular message with a FdHeader.SUSPECT header.
            </para>

            ${FD}
        </section>


        <section>
            <title>FD_ALL</title>

            <para>Failure detection based on simple heartbeat protocol. Every member periodically multicasts a
                heartbeat.
                Every member also maintains a table of all members (minus itself). When data or a heartbeat from P are
                received, we reset the timestamp for P to the current time.
                Periodically, we check for expired members, and suspect those.
            </para>
            <para>
                Example: &lt;FD_ALL interval="3000" timeout="10000"/&gt;
            </para>
            <para>
                In the exampe above, we send a heartbeat every 3 seconds and suspect members if we haven't received a
                heartbeat (or traffic) for more than 10 seconds. Note that since we check the timestamps every
                'interval'
                milliseconds, we will suspect a member after roughly 4 * 3s == 12 seconds. If we set the timeout to
                8500,
                then we would suspect a member after 3 * 3 secs == 9 seconds.
            </para>

			${FD_ALL}

        </section>


        <section>
            <title>FD_SIMPLE</title>

            <para/>
        </section>


        <section>
            <title>FD_PING</title>
            FD_PING uses a script or command that is
            run with 1 argument (the host to be pinged) and needs to return 0
            (success) or 1 (failure). The default command is /sbin/ping (ping.exe on
            Windows), but this is user configurable and can be replaced with any
            user-provided script or executable.
 
 
			 ${FD_PING}
 
        </section>


        <section>
            <title>FD_ICMP</title>
            Uses InetAddress.isReachable() to
            determine whether a host is up or not. Note that this is only available in
            JDK 5, so reflection is used to determine whether InetAddress provides
            such a method. If not, an exception will be thrown at protocol
            initialization time.
            <para/>
            The problem with InetAddress.isReachable()
            is that it may or may not use ICMP in its implementation ! For example, an
            implementation might try to establish a TCP connection to port 9 (echo
            service), and - if the echo service is not running - the host would be
            suspected, although a real ICMP packet would
            <emphasis>not</emphasis>
            have
            suspected the host ! Please check your JDK/OS combo before running this
            protocol.
            <table>
                <title>Properties</title>

                <tgroup cols="2">
                    <colspec align="left"/>

                    <thead>
                        <row>
                            <entry align="center">Name</entry>

                            <entry align="center">Description</entry>
                        </row>
                    </thead>

                    <tbody>
                        <row>
                            <entry>bind_addr</entry>

                            <entry>The network interface to be used for sending ICMP
                                packets, e.g.
                                <code>bind_addr="192.16.8.0.2"</code>
                            </entry>
                        </row>
                    </tbody>
                </tgroup>
            </table>
        </section>


        <section>
            <title>FD_SOCK</title>

            <para>Failure detection protocol based on a ring of TCP sockets created
                between group members. Each member in a group connects to its neighbor
                (last member connects to first) thus forming a ring. Member B is
                suspected when its neighbor A detects abnormally closed TCP socket
                (presumably due to a node B crash). However, if a member B is about to
                leave gracefully, it lets its neighbor A know, so that it does not
                become suspected.
            </para>

            <para>If you are using a multi NIC machine note that JGroups versions
                prior to 2.2.8 have FD_SOCK implementation that does not assume this
                possibility. Therefore JVM can possibly select NIC unreachable to its
                neighbor and setup FD_SOCK server socket on it. Neighbor would be unable
                to connect to that server socket thus resulting in immediate suspecting
                of a member. Suspected member is kicked out of the group, tries to
                rejoin, and thus goes into join/leave loop. JGroups version 2.2.8
                introduces srv_sock_bind_addr property so you can specify network
                interface where FD_SOCK TCP server socket should be bound. This network
                interface is most likely the same interface used for other JGroups
                traffic. JGroups versions 2.2.9 and newer consult bind.address system
                property or you can specify network interface directly as FD_SOCK
                bind_addr property.
            </para>

			${FD_SOCK}
        </section>


        <section>
            <title>VERIFY_SUSPECT</title>
            ${VERIFY_SUSPECT}

            <para/>
        </section>


    </section>

    <section>
        <title>Reliable message transmission</title>

        <section>
            <title>pbcast.NAKACK</title>

            <para>
                NAKACK provides reliable delivery and FIFO (= First In First Out) properties for messages sent to all
                nodes in a cluster.
                </para>
            <para>
                Reliable delivery means that no message sent by a sender will ever be lost, as all messages are
                numbered with sequence numbers (by sender) and retransmission requests are sent to the sender of
                a message<footnote>
                <para>
                    Note that NAKACK can also be configured to send retransmission requests for M to
                    <emphasis>anyone</emphasis> in the cluster, rather than only to the sender of M.
                </para>
            </footnote> if that sequence number is not received.
            </para>
            <para>
                FIFO order means that all messages from a given sender are received in exactly the order in which
                they were sent.
            </para>

			${NAKACK}

        </section>

         <section>
            <title>UNICAST</title>

            <para>
                UNICAST provides reliable delivery and FIFO (= First In First Out) properties for point-to-point
                messages between one sender and one receiver.
                </para>
            <para>
                Reliable delivery means that no message sent by a sender will ever be lost, as all messages are
                numbered with sequence numbers (by sender) and retransmission requests are sent to the sender of
                a message<footnote>
            </footnote> if that sequence number is not received.
            </para>
            <para>
                FIFO order means that all messages from a given sender are received in exactly the order in which
                they were sent.
            </para>
             <para>
                 On top of a reliable transport, such as TCP, UNICAST is not really needed. However, concurrent
                 delivery of messages from the same sender is prevented by UNICAST by acquiring a lock on the sender's
                 retransmission table, so unless concurrent delivery is desired, UNICAST should not be removed from
                 the stack even if TCP is used.
             </para>

			${UNICAST}

         </section>       
    </section>

    <section>
        <title>Fragmentation</title>

        <section>
            <title>FRAG and FRAG2</title>

            <para></para>
            
            ${FRAG}
        </section>
    </section>

    <section>
        <title>Ordering (FIFO covered by NAKACK)</title>
        <para></para>

        <section>
            <title>Total Order (SEQUENCER)</title>

            <para></para>
        </section>
    </section>

    <section>
        <title>Group Membership</title>

        <para>Group membership takes care of joining new members, handling leave
            requests by existing members, and handling SUSPECT messages for crashed
            members, as emitted by failure detection protocols. The algorithm for
            joining a new member is essentially:
            <screen>
                - loop
                - find initial members (discovery)
                - if no responses:
                - become singleton group and break out of the loop
                - else:
                - determine the coordinator (oldest member) from the responses
                - send JOIN request to coordinator
                - wait for JOIN response
                - if JOIN response received:
                - install view and break out of the loop
                - else
                - sleep for 5 seconds and continue the loop
            </screen>
        </para>


        <section>
            <title>pbcast.GMS</title>

			${GMS}
			            

            <section>
                <title>Disabling the initial coordinator</title>

                <para>Consider the following situation: a new member wants to join a
                    group. The prodedure to do so is:
                </para>

                <itemizedlist>
                    <listitem>
                        <para>Multicast an (unreliable) discovery request (ping)</para>
                    </listitem>

                    <listitem>
                        <para>Wait for n responses or m milliseconds (whichever is
                            first)
                        </para>
                    </listitem>

                    <listitem>
                        <para>Every member responds with the address of the coordinator</para>
                    </listitem>

                    <listitem>
                        <para>If the initial responses are &gt; 0: determine the coordinator
                            and start the JOIN protocolg
                        </para>
                    </listitem>

                    <listitem>
                        <para>If the initial response are 0: become coordinator, assuming that
                            no one else is out there
                        </para>
                    </listitem>
                </itemizedlist>

                <para>However, the problem is that the initial mcast discovery request
                    might get lost, e.g. when multiple members start at the same time, the
                    outgoing network buffer might overflow, and the mcast packet might get
                    dropped. Nobody receives it and thus the sender will not receive any
                    responses, resulting in an initial membership of 0. This could result in
                    multiple coordinators, and multiple subgroups forming. How can we overcome
                    this problem ? There are 3 solutions:
                </para>

                <orderedlist>
                    <listitem>
                        <para>Increase the timeout, or number of responses received. This will
                            only help if the reason of the empty membership was a slow host. If
                            the mcast packet was dropped, this solution won't help
                        </para>
                    </listitem>

                    <listitem>
                        <para>Add the MERGE(2) protocol. This doesn't actually prevent
                            multiple initial cordinators, but rectifies the problem by merging
                            different subgroups back into one. Note that this involves state
                            merging which needs to be done by the application.
                        </para>
                    </listitem>

                    <listitem>
                        <para>(new) Prevent members from becoming coordinator on initial
                            startup. This solution is applicable when we know which member is
                            going to be the initial coordinator of a fresh group. We don't care
                            about afterwards, then coordinatorship can migrate to another member.
                            In this case, we configure the member that is always supposed to be
                            started first with disable_initial_coord=false (the default) and all
                            other members with disable_initial_coord=true.This works as described
                            below.
                        </para>
                    </listitem>
                </orderedlist>

                <para>When the initial membership is received, and is null, and the
                    property disable_initial_coord is true, then we just continue in the loop
                    and retry receving the initial membership (until it is non-null). If the
                    property is false, we are allowed to become coordinator, and will do so.
                    Note that - if a member is started as first member of a group - but its
                    property is set to true, then it will loop until another member whose
                    disable_initial_coord property is set to false, is started.
                </para>
            </section>

        </section>
    </section>


    <section>
        <title>Security</title>

        <para></para>
        <section>
            <title>ENCRYPT</title>
            
            ${ENCRYPT}
        </section>

        <section>
            <title>AUTH</title>
        </section>
    </section>

    <section>
        <title>State Transfer</title>

        <section>
            <title>pbcast.STATE_TRANSFER</title>

            <para></para>
        </section>

        <section>
            <title>pbcast.STREAMING_STATE_TRANSFER</title>

            <section>
                <title>Overview</title>

                <para>In order to transfer application state to a joining member of a
                    group pbcast.STATE_TRANSFER has to load entire state into memory and
                    send it to a joining member. Major limitation of this approach is that
                    the state transfer that is very large (&gt;1Gb) would likely result in
                    OutOfMemoryException. In order to alleviate this problem a new state
                    transfer methodology, based on a streaming state transfer, was
                    introduced in JGroups 2.4
                </para>

                <para>Streaming state transfer supports both partial and full state
                    transfer.
                </para>

                <para>Streaming state transfer provides an InputStream to a state
                    reader and an OutputStream to a state writer. OutputStream and
                    InputStream abstractions enable state transfer in byte chunks thus
                    resulting in smaller memory requirements. For example, if application
                    state consists a huge DOM tree, whose aggregate size is 2GB (and which
                    has partly been passivated to disk), then the state provider (ie. the
                    coordinator) can simply iterate over the DOM tree (activating the
                    parts which have been passivated out to disk), and write to the
                    OutputStream as it traverses the tree. The state receiver will simply
                    read from the InputStream and reconstruct the tree on its side,
                    possibly again passivating parts to disk.
                </para>

                <para>Rather than having to provide a 2GB byte[] buffer, streaming
                    state transfer transfers the state in chunks of N bytes where N is
                    user configurable.
                </para>
            </section>

            <section>
                <title>API</title>

                <para>Streaming state transfer, just as regular byte based state
                    transfer, can be used in both pull and push mode. Similarly to the
                    current getState and setState methods of org.jgroups.MessageListener,
                    application interested in streaming state transfer in a push mode
                    would implement streaming getState method(s) by sending/writing state
                    through a provided OutputStream reference and setState method(s) by
                    receiving/reading state through a provided InputStream reference. In
                    order to use streaming state transfer in a push mode, existing
                    ExtendedMessageListener has been expanded to include additional four
                    methods:
                </para>

                <para>
                    <screen>
                        public interface ExtendedMessageListener
                        {

                        /*non-streaming callback methods ommitted for clarity*/


                        /**
                        * Allows an application to write a state through a provided OutputStream.
                        * An application is obligated to always close the given OutputStream reference.
                        *
                        * @param ostream the OutputStream
                        * @see OutputStream#close()
                        */
                        public void getState(OutputStream ostream);

                        /**
                        * Allows an application to write a partial state through a provided OutputStream.
                        * An application is obligated to always close the given OutputStream reference.
                        *
                        * @param state_id id of the partial state requested
                        * @param ostream the OutputStream
                        *
                        * @see OutputStream#close()
                        */
                        public void getState(String state_id, OutputStream ostream);


                        /**
                        * Allows an application to read a state through a provided InputStream.
                        * An application is obligated to always close the given InputStream reference.
                        *
                        * @param istream the InputStream
                        * @see InputStream#close()
                        */
                        public void setState(InputStream istream);

                        /**
                        * Allows an application to read a partial state through a provided InputStream.
                        * An application is obligated to always close the given InputStream reference.
                        *
                        * @param state_id id of the partial state requested
                        * @param istream the InputStream
                        *
                        * @see InputStream#close()
                        */
                        public void setState(String state_id, InputStream istream);

                        }
                    </screen>
                </para>

                <para>For a pull mode (when application uses channel.receive() to
                    fetch events) two new event classes will be introduced:
                </para>

                <para>
                    <itemizedlist>
                        <listitem>
                            <para>StreamingGetStateEvent</para>
                        </listitem>

                        <listitem>
                            <para>StreamingSetStateEvent</para>
                        </listitem>
                    </itemizedlist>
                    These two events/classes are very similar to
                    existing GetStateEvent and SetStateEvent but introduce a new field;
                    StreamingGetStateEvent has an OutputStream and StreamingSetStateEvent
                    has an InputStream.
                </para>

                <para>The following code snippet demonstrates how to pull events from
                    a channel, processing StreamingGetStateEvent and sending hypothetical
                    state through a provided OutputStream reference. Handling of
                    StreamingSetStateEvent is analogous to this example:
                </para>

                <screen>...
                    Object obj=channel.receive(0);
                    if(obj instanceof StreamingGetStateEvent) {
                    StreamingGetStateEvent evt=(StreamingGetStateEvent)obj;
                    OutputStream oos = null;
                    try {
                    oos = new ObjectOutputStream(evt.getArg());
                    oos.writeObject(state);
                    oos.flush();
                    } catch (Exception e) {}
                    finally{
                    try {
                    oos.close();
                    } catch (IOException e) {
                    System.err.println(e);
                    }
                    }
                    }
                    ...
                </screen>

                <para>API that initiates state transfer on a JChannel level has the
                    following methods:
                </para>

                <para>
                    <screen>public boolean getState(Address target,long timeout)throws
                        ChannelNotConnectedException,ChannelClosedException;
                        public boolean getState(Address target,String state_id,long timeout)throws
                        ChannelNotConnectedException,ChannelClosedException;
                    </screen>
                    Introduction of STREAMING_STATE_TRANSFER does
                    <emphasis>not</emphasis>
                    change the current API.
                </para>
            </section>

            <section>
                <title>Configuration</title>

                <para>State transfer type choice is static, implicit and mutually
                    exclusive. JChannel cannot use both STREAMING_STATE_TRANSFER and
                    STATE_TRANSFER in one JChannel configuration.
                </para>

                <para>STREAMING_STATE_TRANSFER allows the following confguration
                    parameters:
                </para>

				${STREAMING_STATE_TRANSFER}
            </section>

            <section>
                <title>Other considerations</title>

                <para>Threading model used for state writing in a member providing
                    state and state reading in a member receiving a state is tunable. For
                    state provider thread pool is used to spawn threads providing state.
                    Thus member providing state, in a push mode, will be able to
                    concurrently serve N state requests where N is max_threads
                    configuration parameter of the thread pool. If there are no further
                    state transfer requests pool threads will be automatically reaped
                    after configurable "pool_thread_keep_alive" timeout expires. For a
                    channel operating in the push mode state reader channel can read state
                    by piggybacking on jgroups protocol stack thread or optionally use a
                    separate thread. State reader should use a separate thread if state
                    reading is expensive (eg. large state, serialization) thus potentially
                    affecting liveness of jgroups protocol thread. Since most state
                    transfers are very short (&lt;2-3 sec) by default we do not use a
                    separate thread.
                </para>
            </section>
        </section>
    </section>


    <section>
        <title>Flow control</title>
        <para>
            Flow control takes care of adjusting the rate of a message sender to the rate of the slowest receiver over time.
            If a sender continuously sends messages at a rate that is faster than the receiver(s), the receivers will
            either queue up messages, or the messages will get discarded by the receiver(s), triggering costly
            retransmissions. In addition, there is spurious traffic on the cluster, causing even more retransmissions.
        </para>
        <para>
            Flow control throttles the sender so the receivers are not overrun with messages.
        </para>

        <section>
            <title>FC</title>
            <para>
                FC uses a credit based system, where each sender has <code>max_credits</code> credits and decrements
                them whenever a message is sent. The sender blocks when the credits fall below 0, and only resumes
                sending messages when it receives a replenishment message from the receivers.
            </para>
            <para>
                The receivers maintain a table of credits for all senders and decrement the given sender's credits
                as well, when a message is received.
            </para>
            <para>
                When a sender's credits drops below a threshold, the receiver will send a replenishment message to
                the sender. The threshold is defined by <code>min_bytes</code> or <code>min_threshold</code>.
            </para>

			${FC}

        </section>

        <section>
            <title>SFC</title>
            <para>
                A simplified version of FC. FC can actually still overrun receivers when the transport's latency is very
                small. SFC is a simple flow control protocol for group (= multipoint) messages.
            </para>
            <para>
                Every sender has max_credits bytes for sending multicast messages to the group.
            </para>
            <para>
                Every multicast message (we don't consider unicast messages) decrements max_credits by its size.
                When max_credits falls below 0, the sender asks all receivers for new credits and blocks
                until *all* credits have been received from all members.
            </para>

            <para>
                When the receiver receives a credit request, it checks whether it has received max_credits bytes from the requester since
                the last credit request. If yes, it sends new credits to the requester and resets the max_credits for the requester.
                Else, it takes a note of the credit request from P and - when max_credits bytes have finally been received from P - it
                sends the credits to P and resets max_credits for P.

            </para>
            <para>
                The maximum amount of memory for received messages is therefore &lt;number of senders&gt; * max_credits.

            </para>

            <para>
                The relationship with STABLE is as follows: when a member Q is slow, it will prevent STABLE from collecting messages above
                the ones seen by Q (everybody else has seen more messages). However, because Q will *not* send credits back to the senders
                until it has processed all messages worth max_credits bytes, the senders will block. This in turn allows STABLE to
                progress and eventually garbage collect most messages from all senders. Therefore, SFC and STABLE complement each other,
                with SFC blocking senders so that STABLE can catch up.

            </para>
			
			${SFC}
        </section>
        
    </section>

    <section>
        <title>Message stability</title>
        <para>
            To serve potential retransmission requests, a member has to store received messages until it is known
            that every member in the cluster has received them. Message stability for a given message M means that M
            has been seen by everyone in the cluster.
        </para>
        <para>
            The stability protocol periodically (or when a certain number of bytes have been received) initiates a
            consensus protocol, which multicasts a stable message containing the highest message numbers for a
            given member. This is called a digest.
        </para>
        <para>
            When everyone has received everybody else's stable messages, a digest is computed which consists of the
            minimum sequence numbers of all received digests so far. This is the stability vector, and contain only
            message sequence numbers that have been seen by everyone.
        </para>
        <para>
            This stability vector is the broadcast to the group and everyone can remove messages from their
            retransmission tables whose sequence numbers are smaller than the ones received in the stability vector.
            These messages can then be garbage collected.
        </para>

        <section>
            <title>STABLE</title>

			${STABLE}


        </section>

    </section>    

    <section>
        <title>Misc</title>

        <section>
            <title>COMPRESS</title>

            <para></para>
        </section>


        <section>
            <title>pbcast.FLUSH</title>

            <para>Flushing forces group members to send all their pending messages
                prior to a certain event. The process of flushing acquiesces the
                cluster so that state transfer or a join can be done. It is also
                called the stop-the-world model as nobody will be able to send
                messages while a flush is in process. Flush is used:
            </para>

            <para>
                <itemizedlist>
                    <listitem>
                        <para>State transfer</para>

                        <para>When a member requests state transfer it tells everyone to
                            stop sending messages and waits for everyone's ack. Then it asks
                            the application for its state and ships it back to the
                            requester. After the requester has received and set the state
                            successfully, the requester tells everyone to resume sending
                            messages.
                        </para>
                    </listitem>

                    <listitem>
                        <para>View changes (e.g.a join). Before installing a new view
                            V2, flushing would ensure that all messages *sent* in the
                            current view V1 are indeed *delivered* in V1, rather than in V2
                            (in all non-faulty members). This is essentially Virtual
                            Synchrony.
                        </para>
                    </listitem>
                </itemizedlist>
            </para>

            <para>FLUSH is designed as another protocol positioned just below the
                channel, e.g. above STATE_TRANSFER and FC. STATE_TRANSFER and GMS
                protocol request flush by sending a SUSPEND event up the stack, where
                it is handled by the FLUSH protcol. The SUSPEND_OK ack sent back by
                the FLUSH protocol let's the caller know that the flush has completed.
                When done (e.g. view was installed or state transferred), the protocol
                sends up a RESUME event, which will allow everyone in the cluster to
                resume sending.
            </para>

            <para>Channel can be notified that FLUSH phase has been started by
                turning channel block option on. By default it is turned off. If
                channel blocking is turned on FLUSH notifies application layer that
                channel has been blocked by sending EVENT.BLOCK event. Channel
                responds by sending EVENT.BLOCK_OK event down to FLUSH protocol. We
                recommend turning on channel block notification only if channel is
                used in push mode. In push mode application that uses channel can
                perform block logic by implementing MembershipListener.block()
                callback method.
            </para>
            
            ${FLUSH}			

        </section>
    </section>

   
</chapter>